Science / Math Education for Deaf Students

In response to reports of widespread adult illiteracy in the U.S., two positions on educational reform have emerged: a back to the basics movement that stresses enduring truths, and a social constructivist position that highlights the social context of language teaching and use. Each holds different and competing assumptions about language learning and the teaching of writing. In order to uncover the assumptions operating in classrooms for deaf students, two sets of recollections concerning writing activities were analyzed: the autobiographical essays of 87 U.S. deaf college students and the journal entries of 55 college-aged German deaf students. Students from both countries generally recalled writing for two purposes: to report and to practice grammar and mechanics. It is argued here (a) that these activities represent a narrow conception of literacy and inaccurate assumptions about language learning and (b) that the back to the basics movement perpetuates such assumptions, whereas a social constructivist approach does not. Finally, educational, social, and political implications of using whole language approaches, among others, in the teaching of writing to deaf students are considered.

Austin, G. F. (1975). Knowledge of Selected Concepts Obtained by an Adolescent Deaf Population. American Annals of the Deaf, 360-370.

This study was undertaken to explore the level of concept knowledge attained by deaf adolescents who had taken the Stanford Achievement tests under the auspices of the Annual Survey of Hearing Impaired Children and Youth. Test items from the Intermediate I, II, and Advanced batteries were categorized into concepts related to everyday living activities. The results indicated that adolescent deaf students develop concepts at a rate different from hearing students. The development of conceptual knowledge is not a function of age but continues during the school age years.

Barman, C. R., Cohen, M. R., Furness, L. B., Shedd, J. D. (1991). Integrating science into the K-8 curriculum of deaf children. Final Report to the Indiana Commission for Higher Education. ERIC Document Reproduction Services ED 343 779.

Barman, C. R., & Shedd, J. D. (1992?). The development, dissemination, and evaluation of science activities for hearing-impaired children. ERIC Document Reproduction Services ED 357 958.

Berent, G.P., Samar, V.J. & Parasnis, I. (2000). College teachers' perceptions of English language characteristics that identify English language learning disabled deaf students. American Annals of the Deaf, 145, 342-358.

Deaf individuals typically experience English language difficulties at all levels of linguistic knowledge. Hearing individuals with English language learning disabilities (LD) can exhibit the same kinds of English language difficulties as deaf individuals. Although the existence of deaf individuals who also have LD has been recognized for many years, there are no clearly defined criteria for identifying them, partly because of the confounding effects of deafness and LD on English language development. Despite the confound, previous surveys suggest that teachers believe that atypical English language behavior is a potential diagnostic marker for LD in deaf individuals. In this study, we administered a survey to solicit the intuitions of experienced teachers and tutors of English to deaf college students regarding the degree of difficulty that deaf students with and without LD might be expected to have in dealing with 30 specific English language phenomena. Spelling knowledge and a variety of English discourse, lexical, syntactic, and morphological phenomena emerged as priority candidates for further study as potential markers of LD in the deaf population.

Berger, N.H. (1978). Careers in Science for Handicapped Persons. Science Education News.

Beyer, B. (2001). What Philosophy Offers to the Teaching of Thinking. In DEVELOPING MINDS, 3rd edition,ed. A. Costa. Alexandria, VA.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Beyer, B. (1988). DEVELOPING A THINKING SKILLS PROGRAM. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Borron, Robert (1978). Modifying Science Instruction to Meet the needs of Hearing Impaired. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 15, 4, 257-262.

Boyd, Eunice & George, Kenneth D. (1973). A Braille Code for Interactive Terminal Use. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 10, 1, 91-99.

Braden, J.; et al (1989). The Effects of Micro-Computer Telecommunication on Hearing-Impaired Children's Literacy and Language. Volta Review,91.

Braverman, Barbara B., Egelston-Dodd, Judy, & Egelston, Richard L. (1979). Cue Utilization by Deaf Students in Learning Medical Terminology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,16, 2,
91-103.

Brickman, B., & Workman, S. (1995). Enhancing the learning environment for deaf students in the science classroom. Journal of Science for Persons with Disabilities,3 (1), 40-43.

Brown, D.R. (1978) Teaching Science to the Hearing Impaired: Research and Review of Pertinent Literature. NSTA Conference Proceedings. NSTA, Washington, D.C.

Burch, D.D. (1979). Astronomy Education for the Deaf. Association of Astronomy Educators Newsletter,3.

Burch, D.D., Sunal, D.W. (1978). Science Curriculum for the Young Hearing Impaired: Present State of the Art. H. Hofman, (ed.) A Working Conference on Science Education for Handicapped
Students,Washington, D.C.

Bybee, R.W. (1972). A Review of Literature of Science for the Deaf. Science Education,56, 2, 237-242.

Bybee, R.W., Hendricks, P.A. (1972). Teaching Science Concepts to Preschool Deaf Children to Aid Language Development. Science Education,56, 3, 303-310.

Bybee, R.W. (1972). Science in a Silent World. Science Activities, 6, 25-27.

Cain, B.E. (1981). Teaching Chemistry to the Hearing Impaired. Journal of College Science Teaching, 10, 364-366.

Cawley, J. F. & Murdock, J. Y. (1987). Technology and Students with Handicaps. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 12, 200-211.

Technological advances have opened the door for numerous educational interventions with handicapped children. These range from simple hand-held calculators for use in arithmetical problem solving to interactive videodisk systems that provide multimodal representations of complex knowledge and skills. As has been the case historically, curricular materials, in this case software, and implementation lag far behind. In a sense this is an enviable position because it provides developers with an opportunity to concentrate on the development of quality software. One component needed for an overall successful technological endeavor is to extend the useful life of the materials so that they can be integrated into long-term programming.

Chaleff, C. & Toranzo, N. (2000). Helping Our Students Meet the Standards Through Test Preparation Classes. American Annals of the Deaf, 145, 1, 33-40.

Test preparation helps deaf students develop the skills they need to do well on standardized tests, particularly on a reading test format such as that used with the Stanford Achievement Test. The authors share information on how test preparation helps students to develop the skills required to do well on standardized reading tests by examining test-taking strategies and common language structures used in test items and how readers can learn to interpret them. The authors list the common errors made by their students and discuss remedial classes designed to address a range of test taking and reading skills.

Clariana, R. B. & Bond, C. L. (1993). Using Readability Formulas to Establish the Grade Level Difficulty of Software. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 4, 3, 255-261.

At this time, the effectiveness of computer-based instruction (CBI) in the upper-elementary school depends heavily on students' reading ability. CBI software seldom specifies exact grade levels but rather, for marketing reasons, lists broad grade-range guidelines. For this reason, some CBI software may be inappropriate for some learners, especially poor readers. Applying various readability formulas to software to more accurately determine grade level difficulty further complicates the issue, since different formulas produce different grade levels for the same text, and also it is unclear whether formulas designed for printed materials are appropriate for computer text. This study compared the grade level difficulty obtained from seven readability formulas to student reading levels from two nationally recognized standardized tests in order to determine which formula(s) were most appropriate for determining the readability of computer-based text. It was found that the Flesch-Kincaid, FOG, and ARI formulas provided the best estimate of reading grade level of computer-based for these students in grades five and six.

Cook, M. (2001). Mathematics: The Thinking Arena for Problem-Solving. In DEVELOPING MINDS, 3rd edition, ed. A. Costa. Alexandria, VA.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Corrick, M.E.,Jr. (1981). Teaching Handicapped Students Science: A Resource Handbook for K-12 Teaches.Washington, D.C.: National Education Association.

Craig, H. B. & Gordon, H. W. (1988). Specialized Cognitive Function and Reading Achievement in Hearing-Impaired Adolescents. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 53, 30-41.

This study evaluated the performance of hearing-impaired adolescents on tests of specialized cognitive functioning and explored the linkage between cognitive profile and reading achievement. Other variables noted were mathematics achievement, speech production, etiology, and age of onset of hearing loss. Subjects were 62 severely-to-profoundly hearing-impaired students between 15 and 20 years of age, 31 "high readers" and 31 "low readers". Results indicated that, for this sample, cognitive function was below average for the verbal and sequential skills associated with the left hemisphere but above average for the "visuospatial" skills associated with the right hemisphere. Reading performance proved to be highly correlated with cognitive profile, as did mathematics performance and, to a lesser extent, speech and age of onset. Ramifications for instruction are discussed - in particular, development of strategies for using the right hemispheric cognitive strengths, as identified in this sample, to help overcome the deficits in "verbosequential" processing and reading achievement traditionally associated with hearing-impaired students.

Culbertson, L. B. (1974). CAI - Beneficial Teaching Tool at Texas School For The Deaf. American Annals of the Deaf, 34-40.

More than 15 schools for the deaf have found a powerful teaching tool, C.A.I., through an IMSSS Deaf Research Grant (Project No. 14-2280, Grant No. OEG-0-70-4797-607). This grant terminated in June 1973, at which time these schools for the deaf had to discontinue CAI or find another means for continuing it.

Based on the impact of the IMSSS Research Results (ex: Dr. Suppes et al. concluded that the CAI Math Program led to sufficient increases to bring deaf students to GP gains expected of normal hearing students), 13 of the 15 schools that participated in the project committed funds for 1973-74 CAI continuation and the remaining 2 have not yet decided what CAI implementation alternative to adopt. Other schools for the deaf, that received no CAI from the project, have been added to those supporting CAI in one network that directly resulted from the project. The growth of CAI in schools for the deaf is expected to continue, as more and more schools learn of its power as a proven effective teaching tool for the deaf.

Cunningham, P. & Lang, H.G. (1978,Fall-1979, Winter). Aids in Teaching Laboratory Science to Deaf Students, Science Education News.

DeWalt, P. (1968). Adaptations of the Scientific Method for the Deaf Child. Volta Review,70, 394.

Diebold, T. J. & Waldron, M. B. (1988). Designing Instructional Formats: The Effects of Verbal and Pictorial Components on Hearing-Impaired Students' Comprehension of Science Concepts. American Annals of the Deaf, 30-35.

This study compared the effectiveness of four different printed instructional formats on the comprehension of science information by 60 hearing-impaired students aged 12 to 22 with severe to profound hearing losses. The students studied one of four randomly assigned formats describing basic science concepts derived from a sixth-grade science textbook. Gain scores calculated from pretest and posttest scores measured comprehension. Results indicated that formats that featured highly pictorial content and simplified English produced significantly higher mean gain scores than formats with less pictorial content and more complex English patterns. Differences were noted also between male and female participants. The study has general implications for the design of instructional materials developed for hearing-impaired learners.

Dollard, V. J. (1995). Shattered Silence: Remembering deaf scientists throughout the ages. Focus, Spring, 19-21.

Dowaliby, F. (??) Adjunct Questions in Prose: A Question Position-by-Reading Ability Interaction. American Annals of the Deaf, 135, 1, 50-53.

Immediate factual learning performance of profoundly deaf postsecondary students was compared as a result of pre-, post- or no adjunct questions interspersed throughout a passage of prose. Analyses revealed a position-by-reading ability interaction. While pre-questions yielded the highest learning performance for low ability readers, post-questions resulted in significantly greater learning performance for high ability readers. Findings are discussed in terms of question position, student's reading ability, and text difficulty.

Dowaliby, F. (??) The Effects of Adjunct Questions in Prose for Deaf and Hearing Students at Different Reading Levels. American Annals of the Deaf, 137, 4, 338-344.

In two studies, the author investigated interactions among adjunct question position, reading ability, and direct versus indirect learning outcomes for deaf postsecondary and hearing middle-school students. Adjunct questions were inserted immediately preceding or following brief sections of instructional prose for the purpose of focusing and cognitively activating the readers. Different effects were observed for deaf and hearing readers and for different levels of assessed reading ability. The findings are discussed in terms of reading ability, adjunct activities while reading prose, and direct versus indirect instructive effects.

Dowaliby, F. & Lang, H. G. (1999). Adjunct Aids in Instructional Prose: A Multimedia Study With Deaf College Students. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 4, 4, 270-282.

A computer-based science lesson was administered to 144 deaf college students grouped into low, middle, and high reading ability levels. Five instructional conditions were compared: (1) text only, (2) text and content movies, (3) text and sign movies, (4) text and adjunct questions, and (5) all of these together (full condition). The low reading level subjects in the adjunct question and full conditions demonstrated immediate, factual learning performance comparable to that of the high reading level subjects in the text-only condition. These and other results of this investigation suggest the compensatory potential of adjunct aids and associated mathemagenic activities to improve factual learning from instructional prose for low reading ability students.

Egelston, Judy & Mercaldo, David. (1975). Science Education for the Handicapped:Implementation for the Hearing Impaired. Science Education, 59, 2, 257-261.

Egelston-Dodd, Judy (1994). Critique of Harry Lang's Paper 'Science for Deaf Students:Looking into the Next Millennium. A Futures Agenda: Proceedings of a Working Conference on Science for Persons with Disabilities, University of Northern Iowa, 110-111.

Elefant, E.F. (1980). Deaf Children in an Inquiry Training Program. Volta Review, 82, 271-279.

Esler, William K. & Anderson, Betty. (1981). Can Science Aid in Remediating State Assessment Reading Deficiencies? School Science and Mathematics, 278-286.

Fletcher, J.D. (1976). The Stanford Project on Computer Assisted Instruction for Hearing-Impaired Students. Journal of Computer Based Instruction,3, 1-12.

Franks, F., Albrecht, S., & Lang, H.G. (1985). FOCUS in Mathematics (Fundamental Operations and Concepts: Underlying Schema). Louisville: American Printing House for the Blind.

Garmon, L. (1981). Breaking the Sound Barrier. Science News,120, 90-92.

Gavin, John J., et al. (1981). Chemistry and the Hearing Impaired. Journal of Chemical Education, 209-212.

Gavin, J., et al. (1975). Who Disables the Disabled? Journal of Chemical Education, 5, 716-721.

Gera, G. & Boland, S.K. (1979). Science Education for Handicapped Children. An interview with Martha Ross Redden. Education Unlimited,1, 44-46.

Getz, L., et al. (1988). 3-2-1 Contact, Science Enrichment Through Educational Television. Perspectives for Teachers of the Hearing Impaired,7, 2-4.

Gillespie, C. W. & Twardosz, S. (??). Survey of Literacy Environments and Practices in Residences at Schools for the Deaf. American Annals of the Deaf, 141, 3, 224-229.

The purpose of this study was to add to the sparse knowledge about literacy environments and practices in children's residences at schools for the deaf by conducting a nationwide survey. Twenty-six residential schools for the deaf throughout the country responded by mail. Results revealed that all of the responding schools made reading and writing materials available to children in their residences. Counselors read to children individually and supervised homework, and children wrote letters and read independently. However in half of the residences, materials were not regularly rotated and in most residences time was not set aside for group storybook reading. Implications for practice include focusing on providing interesting and stimulating literacy materials for children, rotating materials regularly, and planning group literacy-related events such as storybook reading or storytelling.

Grant, W., Rosenstein, J. & Knight, D. L. (1975). A Project to Determine the Feasibility of BSCS's "Me Now" for Hearing-Impaired Students. American Annals of the Deaf, 120, 1, 63-69.

An innovative science program recently developed for use with EMH students was tested on a small group of low-verbal hearing-impaired secondary students of normal intelligence. Information gathered helped to determine the appropriateness of this currently available science program for use with a non-target population. Data show the group clearly attained cognitive gains and retained portions of these gains. Results of pre- and post-administration of an index of affective attitude toward Science showed some positive changes in affect toward Science as a result of the program. Strong recommendations are made considering adoption of the program in other educational settings where there are similar groups of low-verbal hearing-impaired students.

Gray, D. (1995). Computer Assisted Learning and Hearing-Impaired Children - Part I: Does CAL work? J. Brit. Assn. Teachers of the Deaf, 19, 2, 38-67.

Children with special needs, including hearing-impaired children, need large amounts of individual attention if they are to cope with the demands of the curriculum. With the integration of most hearing-impaired children into mainstream classes, for at least a part of their normal school day, there must be some concerns that the appropriate degree of support may not always be forthcoming - despite the best efforts of teachers. One approach to this problem may be the provision of extra resources, one example of which is the use of computer assisted learning courseware. This article looks at the learning strategies and content areas of typical computer assisted learning programs, especially in the field of special needs education and the teaching of language to hearing-impaired children. It is argued that the extent to which computer assisted learning is used in classrooms depends, in large part, on the attitude of teachers to the medium, and this article, drawing on research largely from overseas (since there is a paucity of research in this country), examines some factors which influence these attitudes. Part II of this article presents the results of a recent study by the author into the attitudes of teachers of the deaf in the UK, and as a guide to future courseware developers, what factors would encourage them to make more use of the medium.

Hadary, Doris E., et al. (1976). Breaking Sound Barriers for the Deaf Child Science and Children, 14, 33.

Hadary, D.E., et al. (1979). Out of Darkness and Silence. Science and Children, 16, 40-41.

Harris, N.D.C. & Mustafa, N. (1986). Teaching Hearing- Impaired Children in Iraq Using a New Teaching Method. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 23, 159- 165.

Hasselbring, T. S. (??). Using Media for Developing Mental Models and Anchoring Instruction. American Annals of the Deaf, 139, 36-45.

In this article, Hasselbring discusses two general approaches to the design and study of IM (integrated media) applications, and relate each of these to current theories of leanring and thinking. The first and more common approach is what I call the curricular embellishment approach. This approach involves beginning with an existing curriculum (or a part thereof) and embellishing it through IM applications.

The second approach uses IM to break the mod of existing curricula and fundamentally alters the relationship among teacher, learner, and the tools for teaching and learning. For example, the application of this approach can encourage students to: explore environments and generate issues and questions to be researched further; produce knowledge rather than merely receive it passively; and teach others rather than invariably wait to be taught by someone else.

Haushalter, Robert & Rosenberg, Richard (1976). Breaking Sound Barriers for the Deaf Child. Science and Children, 14, 33.

Hayden, Jean S. & Woodward, Helen M.E. (1968). Rationale for a Science Program. Volta Review, 70, 3, 159- 165.

Hensley, Pamela (1994). Deaf and Hard of Hearing Science Students Objects of Experimental Approach:'Environmentally Literature' Residential School Students Focus on Natural Resources.
Good Newsletter, 49.

Hertzog, M., Stinson, M. S. & Keiffer, R. (??) Effects of Caption Modification and Instructor Intervention on Comprehension of a Technical Film. ERT&D, 37, 2, 59-68.

Two versions of a technical film, captioned at approximately 8th- and 11th-grade reading levels, were shown to 32 hearing-impaired college students. Fifteen of these students also received supplementary instruction from a teacher. Data from a comprehension test were analyzed with a four-factor experimental design to determine effects of instruction, level of captioning, test type (recall or recognition), and subject reading ability. Significant effects were found for instruction, test type, and reading ability. In addition, there was a significant three-way interaction between instruction, caption level, and reading ability. While both high and low reading groups benefited from instruction when students viewed 8th- grade level, modified captions, only the high reading group benefited from instruction when they viewed the 11th-grade level, original captions.

Hillegeist, E. & Epstein, K. (??) Interactions Between Language and Mathematics with deaf Students: Defining the "Language-Mathematics" Equation. Cognitive Processes, 302-307. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press.

The Gallaudet University School of Preparatory Studies serves students who do not have the mathematical and English language skills necessary to begin the university's undergraduate liberal arts program. Many preparatory students exhibit an inadequate level of skill development and a poor understanding of mathematical concepts in algebra and geometry. More than half the students fail the university's waiver test in Algebra I, and more than 90% fail the geometry waiver test. Most students in the Algebra I classes do very well, while students enrolled in Algebra II and Geometry do not. Reasons for the relative lack of success of the more advanced students are not well understood. We believe that one explanation involves a combination of the increasing abstractness and complexity of the mathematical concepts and the difficulty of finding an effective language in which to teach and learn those concepts.

Himmelstein, Jeff (1994). Response to Harry Lang's Paper 'Science for Deaf Students:Looking into the Next Millennium. A Futures Agenda: Proceedings of a Working Conference on Science for Persons with Disabilities, University of Northern Iowa, 112-113.

Hofman, Helenmarie, (ed.) (1978). A Working Conference on Science Education for Handicapped Students: Proceedings. Washington, D.C. NSTA.

Hofman, Helenmarie, & Ricker, Kenneth (1979). Sourcebook: Science Education and the Physically Handicapped. NSTA.

Huberty, T. J. & Koller, J. R. (1984). A Test of the Learning Potential Hypothesis with Hearing and Deaf Students. Journal of Educational Research, 78, 1, 22-28.

The purpose of this study was to determine if a learning potential training procedure would significantly improve the cognitive performance of high- and low- achieving hearing and deaf students to the levels of their higher-achieving peers. High -achieving (N = 20) and low-achieving (N = 20) hearing children aged 12 to 14, and high-achieving (N = 14) and low-achieving (N = 14) deaf students aged 12 to 15 years were assigned to either a training or no=training group. Participants were given the Representational Stencil Design Test in a test-train-test format. For some designs, children were told which stencils were necessary to solve the task (input). With other stencils, they were not told which designs was need (no input). A 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 ANOVA (group X achievement level X training condition X input_ with repeated measures on input indicated significant main effects for achievement level, training, and input. Significant interaction effects for achievement level X training, achievement level X input, and a significant four-way interaction were also obtained. The major conclusions included: (1) regardless of hearing ability, low achievers performed as well as high achievers with training; (2) learning potential procedures can be effectively used with the deaf; (3) input was a very powerful factor in performance; and (4) the deaf can think as abstractly as their hearing counterparts when factors such as training and input are equated and verbal requirements are removed. Implications for theory ad future research are discussed.

Israelite, N. K. (1988). On Readability Formulas: A Critical Analysis for Teachers of the Deaf. American Annals of the Deaf, 14-18.

This article discusses the limitations of readability formulas, which are often used to guide the development and selection of reading materials for hearing-impaired students. Aspects of the reader-writer-text interaction that make for comprehensible texts, but are not accounted for by readability formulas, are described. Teachers of the deaf are then offered viable alternatives for selecting comprehensible reading materials.

Jacobs, L. (1977). The efficiency of interpreting input for processing lecture information by deaf college students. Journal of Rehabilitation of the Deaf, 11, 235-247.

Jagoda, S.K. & Cremer, R.R. (1981). Face to Face with Disabled Scientists and Engineers - Report of a Career Workshop. The Science Teacher, 48, 30-32.

Jarchow, Elaine McNally & Karli, Wade (1983). Hearing Impairment Not Equal to Career Impairment. Science Teacher, 50, 9, 23-25.

Keane, K. J. & Kretschmer, R. E. (1987). Effect of Mediated Learning Intervention on Cognitive Task Performance With a Deaf Population. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 1, 49-53.

Feuerstein's (1979) mediated learning theory was applied to a deaf population for investigating the cognitive modifiability of this population. The Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD) was employed in a pretest-posttest design for determining transfer of learning along cognitive and behavioral dimensions. Severely to profoundly deaf children (N = 45) with hearing parents and between the ages of 9 and 13 years were randomly assigned to three groups - an experimental and two comparison groups. The subjects in the experimental group received examiner mediation as designed by Feuerstein. In one control condition (elaborated), the examiner provided limited feedback to the subjects, and in the other control condition (standard), the subjects performed the tasks following traditional psychometric procedures. The experimental group performed significantly better than the comparison groups on five of the six LPAD tasks, supporting the applicability of Feuerstein's theory of mediated learning. The experimental group also demonstrated significant transfer of learning on other cognitive and behavioral measures.

Keller, E.C., Jr.; et al. (1991). Marine Science for Hearing Impaired Young Scholars Students. Current, The Journal for Marine Science Education, 10.

Kelly, R. R., Lang, H. G. & Mousley, K. (2001, June). PROJECT SOLVE: Web-based guided practice to improve math word problem solving. Paper presented at the Instructional Technology and Education of the Deaf Symposium, Rochester, NY.

PROJECT SOLVE is a Web-based problem-solving project for deaf students supported by a grant from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), U.S. Department of Education. PROJECT SOLVE is developing a Web site that offers college and high school teachers a platform to provide deaf students independent assignments for practicing and improving their analytical thinking and math word problem solving skills without restructuring their courses. The Web site will provide a range and variety of mathematical word problems presented in language typically found in college math courses. An optional help menu provides clear, concise written and graphic information to guide students with a range of reading abilities (8th - 12th grade) through each math word problem. Thus, while students will be challenged with solving high school and college-level math word problems, they will have readable guidance help options at their ability levels. This Web program will be available daily on a 24-hour basis, giving students independent, unrestricted access to problem-solving instruction and guided practice.

Kelly, R. R. & Mousley, K. (2001). Solving word problems: More than reading issues for deaf students. American Annals of the Deaf, 146 (3), 251-262.

Deaf and hearing college students were given 30 math problems to solve. The initial 15 were presented as numeric/graphic math problems, followed by 15 corresponding word problems, with both conditions sequenced for a progressive increase in problem complexity. Each word problem described the kind of shape and measurement information that was presented in its corresponding numeric /graphic problem. The results showed that the deaf college students, regardless of reading level, were comparable in performance to the hearing college students when solving the numeric/graphic math problems and the initial, least complex set of corresponding word problems. However, as the complexity of the descriptive information in the word problems increased along with the complexity of the problem situations, the performance scores of the deaf students decreased. No comparable decrease was observed in the hearing students' scores. While reading ability level was associated with the deaf students' lower scores when solving word problems, the analyses show that other important factors also contributed. These other factors included computational errors (as opposed to procedural errors), leaving problems blank (with no attempts to solve them), making negative comments to avoid word problems resulting in lack of focus, and not applying prior learned information to the word problems.

Kopp, H.G. (1978). Deafness and Learning. Science Education News, 1-2.

Koskinen, P. S., Wilson, R. M. & Jensema, C. J. (1986). Using Closed-Captioned Television in the Teaching of Reading to Deaf Students. American Annals of the Deaf, 131, 1, 43-46.

This research reports the effects of using closed-captioned television as a medium for reading instruction with deaf students. Teachers collected data during 13 to 16 reading lessons with intermediate-aged below-average readers. The data indicate improvement in sight vocabulary retention, student motivation, and reading comprehension. Teachers indicated overall student satisfaction with the use of closed-captioned television compared to regular reading instruction.

Kricos, P. B. & Aungst, H. L. (1984). Cognitive & Communicative Development in Hearing-Impaired Preschool Children. SLS, 43, 121-139.

The cognitive and communicative development of five hearing-impaired preschoolers were evaluated over a three month period to determine if any interrelationships exist among cognitive level, gestural development, and spoken English ability. Level of cognitive development did not appear to be related to the number of separate pragmatic intents and semantic functions expressed nonverbally. However, cognitive level appeared to be related to the number of combinations of pragmatic-semantic categories, and to a lesser degree to the total number of gestural acts used. The one subject who was able to communicate vocally showed the highest cognitive level and an increase in the number of vocal combinations expressed across the three months. Implications for facilitating cognitive and communicative growth in the preschool deaf child are discussed.

Lang, H. G. & Albertini, J. A. (2001). Construction of Meaning in the Authentic Science Writing of Deaf Students. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 6, 4, 258-284.

This study examines how students construct meaning through writing during authentic science activities. To determine how well students understood science concepts, we analyzed 228 writing samples from deaf students in grades 6 through 11 as well as the explanatory and reflective comments of their teachers. The analyses indicate that certain process writing strategies were differentially useful in helping deaf students to construct meaning and in allowing teachers to evaluate the constructed meaning. Three instructional conditions and two teacher variables were found to play roles in determining the accuracy and adequacy of the writing: (1) the writing prompts the teachers used, (2) the focus for the writing, (3) follow-up to the initial writing activity, (4) the teacher's content knowledge, and (5) the teacher's ability to interpret student writing. The authors recommend future applications of writing-to-learn strategies and suggest directions for further research and changes in teacher education.

Lang, H.G., Biser, E., Mousley, K., Orlando, R., & Porter, J. (submitted). Tutoring in higher education: Perceptions of Deaf Students, tutors, and teaachers. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education.

Lang, H.G., & Meath-Lang, B. (1995). Deaf Persons in the Arts and Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.

Lang, H.G. (1994). Silence of the Spheres: The Deaf Experience in the history of science. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey Press.

Lang, H.G. (1994). The role of historical research in the science classroom for students with disabilities. Journal of Science for Persons with Disabilities, 2 (1), 8-10.

Lang, H. G. (1994). The Doppler Effect: A demonstration lecture for teaching physics to deaf and hard-of-hearing students in mainstream settings. Proceedings of a working Conference on Science for Persons with Disabilities. Cedar Falls, Iowa: University of Northern Iowa.

Lang, H.G. (1994). Science for deaf students: Looking into the next millennium. In G. P. Stefanich & J. Egelston-Dodd (Eds.) A Futures Agenda: Proceedings of a Working Conference on Science for Persons with Disabilities. Cedar Falls, Iowa: University of Northern Iowa.

Lang, H. G., Dowaliby, F. J. & Anderson, H. P. (1994). Critical Teaching Incidents: Recollections of Deaf College Students. American Annals of the Deaf, 139, 2, 119-127.

In interviews with 56 deaf college students, we collected accounts of 839 "critical incidents" describing effective and ineffective teaching. From those incidents, 33 specific teaching characteristics were derived and were analyzed in relation to teacher, student, and course variables. Our primary goal was to identify the teaching characteristics underlying deaf students' recollections about their classroom learning experiences. The most frequently mentioned characteristics are similar to those found in studies of hearing college students, particularly within the domain of Teacher Affect. The teacher's ability to communicate clearly in sign language, however, was not only a characteristic unique to deaf college students but also the most frequently occurring characteristic of effective teaching in this study.

Lang, H. G., McKee, B. G. & Conner, K. (1993). Characteristics of Effective Teachers: A Descriptive Study of the Perceptions of Faculty and Deaf College Students. American Annals of the Deaf, 138, 3, 252-259.

We designed and administered rating and ranking instruments to examine the perceptions about teaching characteristics held by administrators, academic department chairpersons responsible for evaluating teaching, instructional faculty, and deaf college students. The differences in perceptions found between supervisors and teachers about characteristics of effective teaching indicate a need for ongoing dialogue. In addition, teachers and deaf college students were found to differ in their views of the importance of certain characteristics, and we suggest teachers discuss these perceptions with students. We also recommend additional research on particular characteristics of effective teaching.

Lang, H. G. & Panara R. F. (1989). Deaf characters and deafness in science fiction. The Deaf American, 39 (3), 22-28.

Lang, H.G. The Hearing-Impaired Student in the Science Classroom. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 258 801.

Lang, H.G. (1987). Academic Development and Preparation for Work. In M.C Wang, H.J. Walberg & M.C. Reynolds (Eds.), The Handbook of special education: Research and practice. Oxford,
England: Pergamon Press.

Lang, H.G., Sachs, M.C., & Egelston-Dodd, J. (1983). Science Education for Hearing-Impaired Students in the Eighties: Priorities and Projections. American Annals of the Deaf, 128 (6), 801-808.

Lang, H.G. (1983). Preparing Science Teachers to Deal with Handicapped Students. Science Education, 67 (4), 541-542.

Lang, H.G. (Ed.) (1983). Testing Physically Handicapped Students in Science: A Resource Book for Teachers. Morgantown: Printech.

Lang, H.G. & Propp, G. (1982). Science Education for Hearing Impaired Students: State of the Art. American Annals of the Deaf, 127 (7), 860-869.

Lang, H.G. (1982). Career Education for Hearing-Impaired Students: Infusion Strategies for the Science Teacher. In F. Solano, J. Egelston-Dodd, and E. Costello (Eds.), Focus on Infusion (Vol. 1). Silver Spring, MD: Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf.

Lang, H.G. (1982). Criterion-Referenced Tests in Science: An Investigation of Reliability, Validity, and Standards-Setting. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 19 (8), 665-674.

Lang, H.G. & Caccamise, F. (1981, April). Mainstreaming -- Off Course?: A Response. The Science Teacher.

Lang, H.G. (1981, April). Acoustics for Deaf Physics Students. The Physics Teacher, 19(4), 248-249.

Lang, H.G. & Egelston-Dodd, J. (1981). Science Teaching Strategies for Deaf Students. The Science Teachers Bulletin, Vol. XLV, No. 2.

Lang, H.G. (1981). Criterion-Referenced Testing and Prescriptive Instruction in the Science Classroom. Chapter in M. E. Corrick (Ed.), Teaching Handicapped Students Science. National Education Association.

Lang, H.G. & Caccamise, F. (1980). One on One With the Hearing-Impaired, The Science Teacher, 47 (8), 20-25.

Lang, H.G. (1979). Hearing Impaired Physics Students and Implications for Teachers. Chapter in H. Hofman & K. Ricker (Eds.), Science Education and the Physically Handicapped: Source book. National Science Teachers Association.

Lang, H.G. (1979). Metric Education for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children, American Annals of the Deaf, 124 (3), 358-365.

Lang, H.G. (1978). Some Educationally Significant Traits of Hearing-Impaired Physics Students and Implications for Teachers in the Mainstream. Chapter in H. Hofman (Ed.), Science Education for Handicapped Students.

Lang, H.G. (1978). Mainstreaming: A New Dimension in Science Education for the Hearing Impaired, Midwest Educational Review, 10 (3), 13-27.

Lang, H.G. (1973). Teaching Physics to the Deaf, The Physics Teacher, 11, 527-531. Also in Teaching Introductory Physics, American Association of Physics Teachers, 1974.

Large, A., Beheshti, J., Breuleux, A. & Renaud, A. (1995). Multimedia and Comprehension: The Relationship among Text, Animation, and Captions. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 46, 5, 340-347.

We report the results from the second phase of a cognitive study of multimedia and its effect on children's learning. A sample of 71 children (12-year-olds) drawn from three primary schools viewed a procedural text that included a four-sequence animation with captions on how to find south using the sun's shadow. This multimedia sequence was adapted from a section within Compton's Multimedia Encyclopedia using Apple QuickTime. The children were divided into four groups, each of which viewed different media combinations: text only; text plus animation; text plus captions plus animation; and captions with animation. Shortly afterwards the children were asked to undertake two tasks: To recall in their own words what they had learned, and also to enact how they would find south using a model specially designed for this purpose. No significant differences were found among the groups regarding literal recall of what they had read and seen, or in their ability to draw inferences from it. The children in the text plus animation and captions group, however, were more successful at identifying the major steps in the procedure and at enacting that procedure whereas the children who read the text only experienced the most difficulty in performing the procedure.

Lawson, Anton E., Nordland, Floyd & Kahle, Jane B. (1975). Levels of Intellectual Development and Reading Ability in Disadvantaged Students and the Teaching of Science. Science Education, 59, 1, 113-125.

Leitman, Allen (1968). Science for Deaf Children. Washington, D.C.: The Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf, Inc.

Lenth, J.W. (1964). Purpose for Science in a Curriculum for the Deaf. American Annals of the Deaf, 109, 356-358.

Linn, M.; et al. (1979). Science Education for the Deaf: Comparison of Ideal Resources and Mainstream Setting. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 305-316.

Linn, M. & Thier, H.D. (1975). The Effects of Experimental Science on the Development of Logical Thinking in Children. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 12, 49-62.

Lochhead, J. & Zietsman, A. (2001). What Is Problem-Solving? In DEVELOPING MINDS, 3rd edition, ed. A. Costa. Alexandria, VA.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Luetke-Stahlman, B. (1988). Does Computer Software Help Hearing-Impaired Students Learn? Education and Treatment of Children, 11, 3, 239-251.

Two single subject studies were conducted with hearing-impaired students in a clinic situation at a midwestern university. Results demonstrated the usefulness of the design in allowing teachers empirical support for using particular software in instructing special needs students. Specifically, certain types of software may be more useful than others. Drill and practice software was beneficial for teaching hearing-impaired students to spell and define new words. A simulation program, the Game Show, did not prove beneficial to any students. The youngest student (i.e., six years old) had difficulty with both types of computer programs. Features of benefit to learners appeared to be (a) immediate feedback on specific correct responses and (b) opportunities to practice numerous repetitions of the targeted item(s).

Lytle, R. R. & Rovins, M. R. (??). Reforming Deaf Education: A Paradigm Shift from How to Teach to What to Teach. American Annals of the Deaf, 142, 1, 7-15.

The 1980s and 1990s have witnessed increased public attention to the quality of the education provided to America's students. Much of this attention has focused on the quality of the school curriculum and the teacher's knowledge and ability to teach this curriculum. This article reviews curriculum reform in regular education and the need for this field, the education fo students who are deaf and hard of hearing, to address similar concerns. Education of deaf and hard of hearing students has long focused on the question of how we teach deaf students. Reforms in education demand that the question of what we teach deaf students should also be addressed. As in regular education, a major issue is whether teachers are knowledgeable of the subject matter and related pedagogy in the subjects they teach. This article reports on the results of a survey of school administrator's views on teacher's subject matter competencies. Implications for certification, standards in teacher education, and inservice strategies are discussed. Recommendations are made for curriculum reform and strategies for improving teachers' subject matter competencies.

MacDougall, J. G. & Rabinovitch, M. S. (1972). Early Auditory Deprivation and Exploratory Activity. Developmental Psychology, 7, 1, 17-20.

An experiment dealing with the effect of early auditory deprivation on the exploratory behavior of mice is reported. At 2 months of age, deaf and hearing mice, raised in an enriched environment, showed no difference in their pattern of exploratory behavior. However, when tested at maturity, deaf and hearing mice showed different patterns of behavior. These results were viewed as consistent with Shultz's sensori-static theory, and the suggestion was made that deaf mice use their intact senses in a unique way to obtain information and stimulation from the environment.

MacGregor, S. K. & Thomas, L. B. (1988). A Computer-Mediated Text System To Develop Communication Skills for Hearing-Impaired Students. American Annals of the Deaf, 280-284.

This study investigated the effects of manipulating design features of a computer-mediated text (CMT) system on the reading and writing performance of 45 hearing-impaired students. Five versions of a CMT system with an electronic dictionary (ED) were utilized. Versions included either an intrinsic motivation activity (vocabulary game), an extrinsic motivation activity (post-passage test), or no motivation activity. In addition, the kind of information obtained from the ED was varied. Some versions displayed a stand-alone definition; others displayed the definition with a sentence using the wordd in context. Results showed the extrinsic motivation activity related to better reading and writing performance by student users. An on-line record of student access to the ED was kept, and analysis indicated greater access was related to better post-treatment vocabulary knowledge. Implications of the findings are discussed with respect to the design of computer-based learning environments for hearing-impaired students.

Mangrubang, Frederick R. (1993). Teaching Science to Deaf Students. Good Newsletter, 49.

Maqsud, M. (1980). Effects of Personal Lecture Notes and Teacher-Notes on Recall of University Students. Br. J. educ. Psychol., 50, 289-294.

Two experiments studied the effects of note-taking, strategy of note-taking (short/long notes) and reviewing personal notes and/or simplified teacher-notes on immediate and delayed recall. One hundred and sixty university students, classified as either short or long note-takers, served as subjects. They listened to a recorded lecture and then their immediate and delayed retention was assessed by means of the free recall test. Analysis of results revealed that the act of note-taking has facilitative effects on both immediate and long-term recall. Free recall scores of subjects who took short notes in their normal lectures tended to be significantly higher than those who took long notes. Reviewing personal lecture notes and/or simplified and organized teacher-notes facilitates delayed recall.

Martin, D., Craft, A.R., & Zhang, N. (2001). The impact of cognitive strategy instruction on deaf learners: An international comparative study. AMERICAN ANNALS OF THE DEAF, 146 (October), 366-378.

Mayer, R. E. (1992). The Instructive Animation: Helping Students Build Connections Between Words and Pictures in Multimedia Learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 4, 444-452.

In 2 experiments, students studied an animation depicting the operation of a bicycle tire pump or an automobile braking system, along with concurrent oral narration of the steps in the process (concurrent group), successive presentation of animation and narration (by 4 different methods), animation alone, narration alone, or no instruction (control group). On retention tests, the control group performed more poorly than each of the other groups, which did not differ from one another. On problem-solving tests, the concurrent group performed better than each of the other groups, which did not differ from one another. These results are consistent with a dual coding model in which retention requires the construction of representational connections and problem solving requires the construction of representational and referential connections. An instructional implication is that pictures and words are most effective when they occur contiguously in time or space.

Mayer, R. E. (1990). When Is an Illustration Worth Ten Thousand Words? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 4, 715-726.

In three experiments, students read expository passages concerning how scientific devices work, which contained either no illustrations (control), static illustrations of the device with labels for each part (parts), static illustrations of the device with labels for each major action (steps), or dynamic illustrations showing the "off" and "on" states of the device along with labels for each part and each major action (parts-and-steps). Results indicated that the parts-and-steps (but not the other) illustrations consistently improved performance on recall of conceptual (but not nonconceptual) information and creative problem solving (but not verbatim retention), and these results were obtained mainly for the low prior-knowledge) students. The cognitive conditions for effective illustrations in scientific text include appropriate text, tests, illustrations, and learners.

Mayer, R. E. (1989). Systematic Thinking Fostered by Illustrations in Scientific Text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 2, 240-246.

In 2 experiments, students who lacked prior knowledge about car mechanics read a passage about vehicle braking systems that either contained labeled illustrations of the systems, illustrations without labels, labels without illustrations, or no labeled illustrations. Students who received passages that contained labeled illustrations of braking systems recalled more explanative than non explanative information as compared to control groups, and performed better on problem solving transfer nut not on verbatim recognition as compared to control groups. Results support a model of meaningful learning in which illustrations can help readers to focus their attention on explanative information in text and to reorganize the information into useful mental models.

McIntosh, R. A., Sulzen, L., Reeder, K., & Holt Kidd, D. (1995). Making science accessible to deaf students: The need for science literacy and conceptual teaching. American Annals of the Deaf, 139 (5), 480-484.

McKee, B. & Lang, H.G. (1982). A Comparison of Deaf Students' Performance on True-False and Multiple Choice Items, American Annals of the Deaf, 127.

Menchel, R.S. (1981). Chemistry Experiments for the Deaf Secondary Student: A Casual Approach. Teaching Handicapped Students Science. Washington, D.C.: NEA. 43- 45.

Menchel, R. S. (1978). A Lack of Science Education for the Deaf at the Elementary Level. In Helenmarie Hoffman, Science Education for Handicapped Students. Washington, D.C. National Science Teachers Association.

Menchel, R.S.; Stern, V.W. & Redden, M.R. (1978). Final Report on a Design for Utilizing Successful Disabled Scientists as Role Models. AAAS, Washington, D.C.

Mertens, Donna M. (1991). Guidelines for Science Programs for Hearing Impaired Adolescents. International Congress on Education of the Deaf. Rochester, NY, July.

This report includes a discussion of the Marine Science Young Scholars Program, a 4-week summer program in which 32 gifted deaf and hard-of-hearing adolescents participated in at Wallops Island, Virginia in 1988 and 1989. From Mertens' abstract, "The instructional program used cognitive psychology as a framework for developing the curriculum...and was designed to include labs, lectures and field experience; and include the topics of: the scientific method, the ethics of science, and career awareness....The purpose of [this] analysis was to examine the implementation of the Marine Science Young Scholars program...and to identify those elements that contributed to or detracted from its success." ERIC NO: ED333662. [Note: See COMETS: Guidelines for Sign Communication in Science/Mathematics]

Mertens, Donna M. (1991). Instructional Factors Related to Hearing Impaired Adolescents' Interest in Science. Science Education, 75, 4, 429-???.

Mousley, K. & Kelly, R. R. (1998). Problem-solving strategies for teaching mathematics to deaf students. American Annals of the Deaf, 143, 325-336.

Oglia, D., Caccamise, F., Mitchell, M., Lang, H.G., & DeGroote, W. (1990). Technical Signs 10. St. Petersburg, FL: Modern Talking Pictures Press.

Orlando, R., Gramly, M.E., & Hoke, J. (1997). Tutoring deaf and hard of hearing students: A report of the National Task Force on Quality of Services in the Postsecondary Education of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students. Rochester, NY: Northeast Technical Assistance Center, Rochester Institute of Technology.

Orlich, D.C. & Black, K.M.R. (1981). Using Science to Strengthen Communication Skills of Hearing Impaired Students. In Teaching Handicapped Students Science. Washington, D.C.: NEA, 63-66.

Ottem, E. (1980). An Analysis of Cognitive Studies With Deaf Subjects. American Annals of the Deaf, 564-575.

Deaf and hearing children perform equally well when there is a single dimension in a problem solving task (e.g., comparing objects by size). Deaf children do not perform as well as hearing children when there are more than one
dimension in a problem (e.g., when different numbers and sizes of objects are compared).

Owsley, P.J. (1968). Development of the Cognitive Abilities and Language of Deaf Children Through Science. The Volta Review, 70, 389-393.

Pagliaro, C.M. (1998). Mathematics reform in the education of deaf and hard of hearing students. American Annals of the Deaf, 143, 22-28.

In response to increased demand for competent workers who possess skills in problem solving, cooperative work, and technology, education professionals have set out to reform mathematics education. The purpose of the present study was to determine the state of mathematics reform in the education of deaf and hard of hearing students. A national survey was sent to administrators and faculty at schools for the Deaf seeking information on mathematics programs and instruction. Data were analyzed by profession (i.e., administrator, teacher) and grade level (K-4, 5-8, 9-12). Results show that some aspects of form (e.g., problem solving, use of concrete materials) have been incorporated into the deaf education mathematics curriculum but that many 'traditional' techniques (e.g., drill and practice, rote memorization) remain in use. Data support the need for increased attention to mathematics education reform within deaf education. Recommendations are provided to professionals in the field to better prepare students for the 21st century.

Pau, C. S. (??) The Deaf Child and Solving Problems of Arithmetic: The Importance of Comprehensive Reading. American Annals of the Deaf, 140, 3, 287-290.

The present investigation is informed by two major considerations. First, the need for teachers to know more about the difficulties experienced by the deaf child when presented with written mathematical problems. Second, the idea of the relationship between linguistic competence in deaf subjects and their difficulties in the comprehension of verbal messages. In particular, the present article analizes the influence of reading comprehension level on the solution of verbally expressed problems of arithmetic. The results indicate that reading comprehension level is clearly related to the problem-solving level of deaf subjects. In general, if the deaf are unable to understand the verbally presented problem, they will not be able to solve it correctly.

Peterson, G. (1980). Dr. John J. Gavin, Microbiologist. The Deaf American, 32, 10, 3-7.

Philips, S. (1972). A Review of Literature on Science Materials for the Deaf. Science Education, 56, 237-242.

Pini, R.A. (1979). Planetarium Presentation for Deaf Students. Science and Children, 41-42.

Polya, G. (1957). HOW TO SOLVE IT. New York: Doubleday.

Presseisen, B. (2001). Thinking Skills: Meanings and Models Revisited. In DEVELOPING MINDS, 3rd edition, ed. A. Costa. Alexandria, VA.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Pressley, M., Tanenbaum, R., McDaniel, M. A. & Wood, E. (1990). What Happens when University Students Try to Answer Prequestions That Accompany Textbook Material? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 15, 27-35.

University students read a textbook chapter. Before reading, subjects n the prequestions-answered condition responded to prequestions about the chapter. Prequestions-read subjects read but did not attempt to answer these same prequestions before reading the chapter. Control subjects were not provided prequestions. Following reading, the subjects took a post-test over the chapter, with half the test questions based on prequestions and half covering material that was not prequestioned. Prequestions-answered subjects significantly outperformed control subjects on recall of material that was prequestioned, regardless of whether the prequestion had been answered correctly before reading. There were no prequestions-read versus control differences on questions relevant to prequestioned content and no experimental effects at all on questions over material that was not prequestioned. In general, these data are consistent with theoretical claims that prior knowledge activation increases learning and that activated but incorrect proper knowledge does not interfere with learning new content that is inconsistent with the activated prior knowledge. The data particularly provide support for the instructional practice of encouraging readers to attempt to answer prequestions before reading.

Quinsland, L.K., & Long, G. (1989). Teaching, interpreting and learning: Implications for mainstream hearing-impaired students. Paper presented at the 1989 Convention of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, March.

Quinsland, L.K. (1986). Experiential learning vs. lecture learning with postsecondary hearing-impaired learners: a study of the potential need for change to occur in instructional methodology. Ph.D. Dissertation, Walden University.

Reynolds, H. N. & Booher, H. R. (1980). The Effects of Pictorial and Verbal Instructional Materials on the Operational Performance of Deaf Subjects. Journal of Special Education, 14, 2, 175-187.

The present research compared the effectiveness of pictorial and verbal information in printed instructional materials for deaf subjects. Four types of instructional formats were prepared, varying in proportion of pictorial and verbal information: (a) all pictorial; (b) predominantly pictorial, with some ancillary verbal information; (c) all verbal; and (d) predominantly verbal, with some ancillary pictorial information. Each format was given to a separate group of deaf college students. The instructional materials described sequences of operational procedures to be carried out by subjects on a complex control-display apparatus. Performance was measured by task completion time and error rate. Results showed that when both performance variables were considered, the best instructional format was predominantly pictorial, with some ancillary verbal information. The all-pictorial format produced short task completion times but relatively high error rates. The all-verbal and predominantly verbal formats generally yielded low error rates but longer task completion times. Since these results are consistent with related studies conducted with hearing subjects, the research has general implications for the development of instructional materials and job performance aids in education and rehabilitation.

Richardson, J., MacLeod-Gallinger, J., McKee, B., & Long, L. (2000). Approaches to studying in deaf and hearing students in higher education. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5, 156-173.

Some approaches to studying lead to a deeper understanding of information, and others lead to more superficial understanding, making application and transfer of learning less effective. NTID researchers and Dr. John Richardson, Brunel University, U.K., adapted and administered an "Approaches to Studying Inventory" to a matched group of deaf and hearing RIT students. Results indicate that deaf and hearing students use similar conceptual structures when they describe their study habits, but deaf students score higher on need for systematic structure in their approach to studying, while hearing students score higher on relating ideas. Deaf and hearing students' approaches to studying will be examined further relative to major, GPA, and credit hours completed to see if there is a relationship between these demographic variables and self-reported approaches to learning.

Ritchie, D. & Gimenez, F. (1995-96). Effectiveness of Graphic Organizers in Computer-Based Instruction with Dominant Spanish-Speaking and Dominant English-Speaking Students. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 28, 2, 221-233.

Students' academic achievement scores have been found to improve with the use of graphic organizers. Researchers suggest this may be due to the way graphic organizers depict concepts and relationships among concepts. Unfortunately, most previous research on graphic organizers has been confined to English speakers in secondary and higher education. To expand our knowledge on graphic organizers and increased learning, this study examines the effectiveness of graphic organizers when used by fourth-grade students engaged in computer-based instruction. The study also examines whether the learners' dominant language (Spanish and English) influences the effectiveness of graphic organizers. A one-way analysis of variance was used to analyze immediate and delayed gain in academic achievement scores of all students. Statistically and educationally significant differences were found in scores favoring students who used graphic organizers over those who used lists of topics. A two-way y analysis of variance identified no significant differences between language groups for the effect of graphic organizers on immediate or delayed tests. Limitations of the study and suggestions for future research are examined.

Rittenhouse, Robert; et al. (1981). Metaphor and Conservation in Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children. American Annals of the Deaf, 126.

Rohland, P. & Lang, H.G. (1983, April). Sounds and Silence. Science and Children, 20, 17-19.

Schein, Jerome D. (1975, July). The Deaf Scientist. Journal of Rehabilitation of the Deaf, 9, 17-21.

Schneiderman, E. (??) The Effectiveness of an Interactive Instructional Context. American Annals of the Deaf, 140, 1, 8-15.

In the present study, the effectiveness of embedding a targeted linguistic structure within an interactive instructional context is examined. Ten subjects participated in a communication-games intervention which contained seven interactive elements drawn from the parent-child interaction literature. Ten subjects were assigned to a control group. A comparison of student performance before and after intervention supports the effectiveness of adopting instructional strategies that are consistent with a social-interaction perspective on language development. Qualitative results are presented that illustrate each of the interactional characteristics of the intervention. Implications for practice are discussed.

Schultz, O.A. (1973). Planetarium Astronomy for the Hearing-Impaired. Science Teacher, 40, 45-46.

SCIS Newsletter (1975, Spring). Helping the Deaf Hear.

Scouten, E.L. (1979). The Laboratory Report: An Instructional Module for Technical English. American Annals of the Deaf, 124, 377-380.

Smith, S.C. (1979, April). Encouraging Deaf Students to Explore Jobs in Science. The Deaf American, 31, 8, 15.

Spencer, P. & Delk, L. (1989). Hearing-Impaired Students' Performance on Tests of Visual Processing: Relationships with Reading Performance. American Annals of the Deaf, 333-337.

Performance of hearing-impaired students on selected tests of visual processing and the relationship between performance on those measures and on a test of reading comprehension were investigated. Seventy-seven subjects, all 7- and 8-year-olds, were tested using the MVPT, ITPA Sequential Memory Subtest, VADS, Jordon, VMI, Slingerland, and SAT-HI. Scores of the hearing-impaired subjects failed to match those of the hearing norm sample of the VADS test but no systematic differences were found on the other tests of visual processing. Performance IQ was strongly associated with both visual processing and reading scores. Significant portions of the variance in reading scores were explained by IQ and performance on tests of memory for visual stimuli. Visual tests without a memory component failed to explain significant portions of the variance in reading performance.

Stearner, Phyllis (1984). Able Scientists - Disabled Persons Careers in the Sciences. Foundation for Science and the Handicapped Inc., 154 Juliet Court, Carendon Hills, Il 60514.

Stearner, Phyllis (1981, May). Overview of the National Science Foundation (NSF) Project on the Handicapped in Science. Journal of College Science Teaching, 10, 6, 352-354.

Stern, V.W. (1989). The Invisible Talent Pool: Engineering Students with Physical Disabilities. Engineering Education, 565.

Stern, Virginia; et al. (1987). Resource Directory of Scientists and Engineers with Disabilities. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C.

Stinson, M., McKee, B., & Elliot, L. (2000). Development and implementation of the C-Print speech-to-text support service. In J. Albertini, E. Ehrhardt, & H.C. Strauss (Eds). Kommunikation und kreativität. Neckar-Verlag.

Stinson, M., Stuckless, E. R., Henderson, J. & Miller, L. (1988). Perceptions of Hearing-Impaired College Students Toward Real-Time Speech to Print: RTGD and Other Educational Support Services. The Volta Review, 339-348.

Questionnaires were administered to 121 hearing-impaired college students in 29 courses in which a real-time graphic display (RTGD) was used in addition to simultaneous interpreting and paid notetaking. Students assigned higher ratings of understanding to real-time print on a television screen provided by RTGD than to interpreting. Further, they rated the hard-copy printout provided by RTGD as more helpful than notes provided by paid student notetakers. In addition, when asked hypothetically to choose a support service if only one were available, students selected either the real-time television display or the printout from RTGD more frequently than they selected other support services. Demographic and communication characteristics were related to responses to the questionnaire: Students who came from mainstream high school programs and who had relatively high proficiency in reading, writing, and speechreading were likely to prefer RTGD.

Stinson, M., Meath-Lang, B. & MacLeod, J. (1981). Recall of Different Segments of an Interpreted Lecture by Deaf Students. American Annals of the Deaf, 819-824.

In Experiment 1, 20 deaf college students received an interpreted, videotaped presentation of one lecture and a printed presentation of a second lecture. In Experiment 2, 16 deaf students received one interpreted presentation and, then, a second interpreted presentation on a different topic. In both experiments students wrote down the information they remembered immediately after each presentation. Recall protocols were scored for the distribution of ideas recalled from each quarter of the lecture. The principal findings were that students recalled: (a) more information from the first two quarters than from the second two; (b) more information from a printed than from an interpreted presentation; and (c) more information from a second interpreted presentation than from a previous interpreted one. The findings of the study are discussed in terms of their implications for providing educational support to mainstreamed deaf students.

Stolte, Joanne. Is Science a Possible Career for You? (Teacher/Counselor Guide and Captioned Filmstrip. Research for Better Schools, Inc., 1700 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103.

Stolte, J.B. & Smith, S.C. (1981). Science for Deaf Students: Curriculum Suggestions for Grouped and Mainstreamed Programs. In Teaching Handicapped Students Science, Washington, D.C.: NEA, 71-74.

Strassman, B. (1997). Metacognition and reading in children who are deaf: A review of the research. JOURNAL OF DEAF STUDIES AND DEAF EDUCATION, 2, 140-149.

Sunal, Dennis W. & Burch, Daniel (1982, August). School Science Programs for Hearing-Impaired Students. American Annals of the Deaf, 127, -4, 411-417.

Sunal, D.W. (1984). Without Reinventing the Wheel. Perspectives for Teachers of the Hearing Impaired, 2, 16- 18.

Sunal, D.W. & Sunal, C.S. (ed.) (1981). Science for the Hearing Impaired. Teachers Guide. Introduction and Levels 3-7. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin. 1,134.

Titus, J. C. (??) The Concept of Fractional Number among Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students. American Annals of the Deaf, 140, 3, 255-262.

This study investigated deaf and hard-of-hearing students' understanding of the fractional number concept as measured by their ability to determine the order and/or equivalence of two fractional numbers presented in a pair. Analyses focused on the performance and strategies of 10-to-12 and 13-to-16 year old deaf and hard-of-hearing students (N=21) and comparison groups of hearing students (N=26). All students completed 18 fraction items requiring them to indicate which of two fractions presented in a pair was the larger value. On four items, students indicated their strategy. Results showed deaf and hard-of-hearing students performed similarly to younger hearing students in overall performance by fraction type and problem solving strategies. These students had a tendency to order fractions by the values of the counting numbers composing them.

Van Uden, M. J. (1982). The didactics of language following the conversational method and discovery learning of the linguistic structure for pre-lingually profoundly deaf children. J. Brit. Assn. Teachers of the Deaf, 6, 2, 30-41.

It is explained how a teacher of the deaf can learn the skill of a conversational teaching of language. The paradoxical combination of conversational, i.e. unprogrammed language with the teaching of the structure of language is solved by the didactics of guided discovery learning. The link between free conversation and the discovery learning of the structure of language is found in the function of "ideo visual reading". The triad of conversation, ideo visual reading and guided discovery learning is explained as a child-oriented way of teaching language.

Van Wagner, Benjamin, Jr. (1980). Cognitive Growth Via Hands-On Science Activities for Severe and Profound Hearing Impaired Students in a Self-Contained Classroom. Doctoral Dissertation.
University of Northern Colorado.

Vlug, H. (1978). Science Education for the Deaf. Science Education for Handicapped Students. ed. H. Hoffman, Washington, D.C. NSTA.

Waldon, M. B., Diebold, T. J. & Rose, S. (1985). Hearing Impaired Students in Regular Classrooms: A Cognitive Model for Educational Services. Exceptional Children, 52, 1, 39-43.

The presentation of information in the mainstreamed classroom setting to profoundly hearing impaired children is frequently based on the translation of auditory information into word-for-word visual representation (speech read/sign language) through the services of an interpreter. The effectiveness of these selected delivery systems, particularly documented within the regular classroom, have yet to be realized. The following discussion presents a model based on the premise that visual and conceptual delivery of information presented in the classroom is more important than the verbal transliteration of the spoken material. The following does not examine the social, fiscal, or moral issues related to mainstreaming hearing impaired children (Vernon, 1981) but rather addresses the changing role of the "educational interpreter".

Watts, W. J. (1979). The Influence of Language on the Development of Quantitative, Spatial and Social Thinking in Deaf Children. American Annals of the Deaf, 46-56.

The author discusses an investigation into the effect of a lack of verbal language upon the development of deaf children's cognitive abilities. He also sought to determine the impact of a lack of normal experience upon a deaf youngster's performance of certain intellectual tasks.

Wilson, T. & Hyde M. (1997). The Use of Signed English Pictures to Facilitate Reading Comprehension by Deaf Students. American Annals of the Deaf, 142, 4, 333-341.

Many deaf students have severe difficulty acquiring literacy and developing reading comprehension beyond an elementary school level. This difficulty apparently results from a combination of perceptual, communication, instructional, linguistic and experiential deficits. Although some deaf students develop a degree of signed English proficiency, this does not necessarily translate into reading proficiency. Recent studies examining the possible association between signed English pictures and comprehension of printed text present some support for facilitation of students' word recognition in a format combining those two elements. Whether this format enhances comprehension remains unclear from previous studies. The present study, involving 16 severely or profoundly deaf students across two reading-proficiency groups, examined whether the use of signed English pictures in association with printed text enhances students' reading comprehension. The study found that comprehension was significantly enhanced by the use of signed English reading books, with poorer readers deriving greater benefit than better readers. Practical implications of the findings are discussed.