Career Education in Science and Math

COMETS Workshop

Outline:

1. Introduction
2. Pre-readings
3. Objectives
4. Self Efficacy
5. Workshop Activity #1
6. Workshop Activity #2
7. Providing Information
   
   
   1. Books and Magazines
   2. Other Resources
   3. Direct Mention in Texts
   4. Teacher Developed Materials
   5. Deaf People in Science, Mathematics, Engineering, and Medicine
   6. Model Secondary School for the Deaf


8. School Activities
   
   
   1. Classroom Visits/Presentations
   2. Field Trips
   3. Biographical Sketch


9. Workshop Activity #3

Workshop leaders: Download a skeleton copy of the Career Education Workshop power point presentation to help with handouts or overheads.

I. King Jordan, President
Gallaudet University

Introduction:

This workshop provides a variety of strategies for career development and the enhancement of self efficacy in deaf students. One of the emphases relates to sharing information about successful deaf men and women in math and science careers.

Pre-readings:

• Scientists With Disabilities: Toward a Heritage Curriculum (Harry Lang)
• Education for Deaf Children (Alan Hurwitz)

Objectives:

1. To examine Albert Bandura's theory of self efficacy
2. To identify resources on deaf people in math and science careers
3. Develop an understanding of the importance of career education.
4. Learn strategies for infusing career education in science and mathematics.
5. Learn the importance of using biographical information about deaf men and women scientists, engineers, and mathematicians for developing self efficacy in deaf students.

What research says:

Self Efficacy

"Self-efficacy is the belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the sources of action required to manage prospective situations." (Bandura, 1986)

"The assumption is that the beliefs (call them cognitions, if you like) that individuals create and develop and hold to be true about themselves form the very foundation of human agency and are vital forces in their success or failure in all (school) endeavors."

According to Albert Bandura, how strongly people believe in their abilities to accomplish a task is one of the strongest influences upon the end result. A person with little confidence in himself or herself may very well not succeed due to a lack of belief whereas someone who is more confident has an increased chance of success. The amount of confidence a person has can be adversely affected by anxiety and tension. When people are nervous or anxious, they more often tend to expect failure than when they are more relaxed. Increasing a person's relaxation level often results in an increase of confidence in their success.

Another factor that strongly influences a person's confidence in his/her abilities is motivation. A person who is highly motivated to complete a task will be more likely to have a higher level of confidence in the end result. Motivation can also affect the amount of "observational learning" a person will experience. People tend to adapt strategies employed by others if they see that the end result desirable. It is for this reason that Bandura suggests that rewards are not a consequence for behavior. Instead, they are an antecedent. It is the expected reward at the end of a task that will influence a person's motivation.

Self-knowledge pertaining to appraisal of personal competence has been referred to as "self-esteem." (Stinson, 1994). Self-esteem is associated with academic success for both normally hearing and deaf students. Joiner, Erickson, & Crittenden (1966) found that deaf students in a residential high school with relatively high self-esteem tended to have high grade-point averages. Koelle and Convey (1982), studying a similar population, found that self-esteem was positively related to performance on the Stanford Achievement Test for Hearing-Impaired Students. These findings are important in demonstrating the association between self-esteem and "competent performance."

There are many ways to approach the development of positive self esteem in the science classroom. Deaf students seldom have the chance to meet successful deaf scientists, or even deaf science teachers, as models. About one in ten teachers of deaf students in K-12 programs in the United States is deaf. Few of these deaf teachers are employed in public mainstream programs where many deaf children are integrated with hearing children. Without models to emulate, deaf students form their own career-related notions about which professions are "appropriate" for them. In 1977-1978, Robert S. Menchel traveled throughout the United States as a deaf model scientist in a project sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science and Xerox Corporation. Meeting with over 3,500 deaf children, their parents, and teachers, Menchel described his experience as a physicist and encouraged the children to think about science as a career. Some young deaf children who grow up never having the opportunity to meet deaf adults develop the belief that they will be hearing when they become older; others believe they will not reach adulthood. In one of the many letters written to Menchel, a young deaf girl expressed surprise about meeting him: "I couldn't believe that so many deaf people has [sic] the courage to have those important and good jobs. . . . I never realize that a person like you or other deaf people can really get great jobs." For children such as her, there are few deaf women scientists and science teachers available, and this may be a factor influencing how young deaf women perceive science as a possible career.

The barrier created by attitudes about deafness and deaf people has revealed itself in many forms through history, often out of ignorance. Fundamental to this ignorance is a general lack of awareness about deaf people who have been successful in history. Such a need for more information about scientists with various disabilities is being increasingly recognized on the national level. Textbook publishers such as Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, for example, are seeking such information to make science more accessible to all students, and the National Science Foundation Task Force on Persons With Disabilities has described as a major issue the "virtual invisibility of role models in science, science education, and engineering for children with disabilities" (National Science Foundation, 1990, p. iv).

Although no research studies have been found with deaf role models, investigations with other culturally diverse students (African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, etc.) have shown that culturally familiar role models, both in person and as role models in printed materials or textbooks, constitute an important variable that impacts the cognitive learning (Shade, 1982). Other reports have described that the presence of culturally familiar role models in textual materials increases students' self esteem, concept acquisition, and motivation to pursue science careers (Healy, 1990).

Harry G. Lang, co-director of the NSF-sponsored Access to English and Science Outreach Project, presents a slide show highlighting the many contributions of deaf women and men in the history of science, engineering, mathematics, medicine, and invention.

Workshop Activity #1:

Workshop Leader: As a large group, have the participants create their own definition of self-efficacy based on the section "What research says" above. Then in smaller groups have participants discuss the statements made by deaf students below after a presentation about deaf scientists. Have participants discuss the comments in terms of self efficacy, specifically relating their summary to the definition of self efficacy, and perhaps concluding whether they personally think (or do not think) such information is valuable in their classes.

Quotes from deaf students:

• "One of my future interests is in science, and this presentation today had just made me think for science even more, seeing all of those deaf scientists accomplish."
  
  
• "I learned that Deaf people have the ability to do whatever they wanted to be for their own career."
  
  
• "I learned that there are more scientists (Deaf) then I originally thought there to be. Also I learned that they made very important contributions to science and the world around us."
  
  
• "Myself I want to be a writer. I know, I can be one. Like you said, nothing can stop you, only you. You inspired me in some ways."

Workshop Activity #2: The workshop coordinator should print out Workshop Activity #2 and ask the participants to take 10 - 15 minutes and answer the questions. Then, there should be a discussion of these issues among the entire workshop group, preferably with one or more deaf professionals present.

Providing Information

There are many ways to find information for deaf students about the contributions and roles of deaf men and women in science, engineering, and mathematics professions:

• Books and Magazines
• Other Resources
• Deaf People in Science
• Model Secondary School for the Deaf

Books and Magazines

Some possible resources for teachers interested in deaf men and women in science, engineering and mathematics careers:

1. A Resource Directory of Scientists and Engineers with Disabilities.
   Virginia Stern, D. E. Lifton, and S. M. Malcom (Eds.). Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. This reference lists several hundred deaf men and women by scientific specialty, sex, and geographic location (as well as scientists with other disabilities). Many of these men and women are willing to be contacted for classroom visits, consulting, and other educational projects.
   
   Write to:
   Dr. Virginia Stern
   AAAS
   1200 New York Avenue, N.W.
   Washington, DC 20005



2. Silence of the Spheres: The Deaf Experience in the History of Science.
   
   Harry G. Lang (1994). Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey Press. This book is a chronology of contributions of deaf people in science, engineering, medicine, and invention since the Renaissance.
   
   To order, Fax toll free number 1-800-225-5800. Book ISBN 0-89789-368-9. [187 pages, 20 illustrations]. More information about this book.
   
   
3. Deaf Persons in the Arts and Sciences: A Biographical Dictionary.
   
   Harry G. Lang and Bonnie Meath-Lang (1995). This book includes 150 biographies of deaf men and women scientists, engineers, inventors, medical doctors, dentists, writers, sculptors, painters, actors, and other professionals.
   
   To order, Fax toll free number 1-800-225-5800. Book ISBN 0-313-29170-5. [448 pages, 20 illustrations]. More information about this book.
   

Other Resources:

Direct Mention in Texts

Some text books describe the contributions of scientists but do not mention their deafness. Math and science teachers need to become familiar with deaf men and women of note so that they may bring this to the attention of deaf students and possibly motivate them to consider careers in science.

Teacher Developed Materials

The material below is from a teacher-developed text on botany. We have included the 10th objective to demonstrate how to incorporate knowledge of deaf scientists in a lesson plan.

CHAPTER 10. Photosynthesis

OBJECTIVES
1. Explain how animals and plants get energy.
2. Define photosynthesis.
3. State the requirements for photosynthesis.
4. Show where food is made in the cell.
5. Name the chemical in the chloroplasts and state the reason for its importance.
6. Given experimental results of starch tests on several leaves, select the best conclusion for each experiment.
7. Name the food made during photosynthesis and name the food when it is stored.
8. Compare photosynthesis and respiration.
9. Explain how a plant and an animal can live together in a closed container.
10. Name the deaf 18th Century naturalist who was one of the first to study photosynthesis, and describe the study.

The text below is from the evaluation section of this book. We have added an item to evaluate the new objective above.

11. After the plant makes glucose in the leaf, the glucose goes to _____________.

12. When the plant makes extra glucose, the glucose changes to ______________.

13. Why is it necessary for glucose to change to starch?

14. Who was the deaf naturalist from Switzerland known for his early studies of photosynthesis?

 

Deaf People in Science, Mathematics, Engineering and Medicine

This website names successful deaf professionals with links to further information about them.

Model Secondary School for the Deaf

The Model Secondary School for the Deaf (MSSD) in Washington, DC has established a website with information on deaf men and women in science careers. Deaf students are encouraged to write their own biographical sketches of deaf scientists and to enter them in the website. Mary Ellsworth, an MSSD science teacher, is the coordinator of the project.

This website includes student interviews and reports for deaf and hard of hearing professionals in mathematics and science.

MSSD website

School Activities

Strategies for sharing information about successful Deaf persons. There are many ways to teach deaf students about the contributions and roles of deaf men and women in science, engineering, and mathematics professions. A few suggestions are provided below:

• Classroom Visits/Presentations
• Field Trips
• Biographical Sketches

Classroom Visits/ Presentations

What was the most important thing you learned about deaf men and women in the history of science?

• I learned that there is a lot of deaf men and women that I never knew of. I never knew that there was a completely deaf person scientist in this world. It makes me more interested because they're deaf and they know our needs, our languages, our customs. They all really could do it.



• I learned that deaf men and women scientists found many things. Also they are the first deaf person in history to find a wonderful, interesting things. These deaf men and women scientists are not afraid that they're deaf and a scientist. Many people admired the deaf men and women scientists because they succeeded themselves.



• I didn't know there were so many scientists! And that they were responsible for many discoveries we know about such as head lice, chemical symbols, and so on. And that women played a big role too - one almost got the Nobel Peace Prize! Too bad she died!



• I learned many things about them. Deaf people can do it. Most of them didn't get any support but they never gave up their dream. They made it.




 

Are you interested in science as a career for yourself? Why or why not?

• Hey, I would love to be a scientist in the future, but science is so hard to accomplish for me. So I guess I don't want to be a scientist. Actually, I'm considering being a lawyer. I love fighting for people.



• It might be cool when you're a deaf scientist. But I'm not attracted to science that much. But maybe I'll be a scientist in the future. We will never know till the future comes.

Field Trips

1. Museum/Planetarium/Observatory visits may be scheduled with a deaf scientist as a tour leader.

Plan ahead to include special exhibits that emphasize the accomplishments of deaf persons related to the content of the exhibits (see the following two books for ideas: Deaf Persons In the Arts and Sciences, Silence of the Spheres).

2. Laboratories/Places of employment.

Plan visits to locations where deaf scientists are on the job.

Biographical Sketch

In reading biographical sketches written by deaf students, teachers should look for things learned about the deaf scientist. For example, did the student include the science in the person's work, or anything relevant about the deaf person's life? More importantly, teachers should look for any impact on motivation and the development of positive self-efficacy.

Writing-to-Learn Science/Math

One writing activity involves the use of letter writing or e-mail to contact a deaf scientist or mathematician. In one classroom, a teacher asked her students to write to Jelica Nuccio, a deaf woman scientist in Atlanta who has Usher's Syndrome. After a discussion on Usher's Syndrome in biology, one student wrote the following letter:

Dear Jelica Nuccio,

Hi! My name is [student's name] and I am 17 year old and my birthday is Sept. 15, 1997 will be 18 year old. I am from ___ High School and in 10 grade. When next year and I will be in 11 grade. I live in ____. I have Usher Syndrome. I found out I can't see from board in school and I was 10 year old. Parent and I didn't know about U.S. then parent send to other school to get information. Finally I went to New York and work in H.K.C. (Helen Keller Center) for deaf and blind and I really enjoy there in H.K.C. in New York. I use cane and I have 3 dogs at home. I have two Labrador and one is cholcoclate and other is yellow dogs. One is Lasa Apso dogs. I ask you a question.
1. How old are in Usher Syndrome?
2. How you know Usher Syndrome from where? (Like other school or mall)
3. How you find out you has Usher Syndrome (like can't see or bump head)
4. Do you use canes or guide dog for harness or blind?

Another student wrote to a deaf physicist who had visited the class:

Dear Mr. ______,

Thank you so much for the interesting lecture and information about college and jobs. I really got a lot from your talk.

I couldn't believe that so many deaf people had the courage to have those important and good jobs. I am really proud of those who can do it.

I hope we can hear from other men like you to tell us more about it.

I was thinking that it would be great to have a woman to come and speak to us. There are fewer women represented than men. I would love to see what some deaf professional women are doing in today's world.

I never realized that a person like you or other deaf people can really get great jobs. Many thanks pease come again.

Sincerely yours,

Sonja

The following essay by a deaf student provides evidence of the impact on self identity:

"A Deaf Physicist"

William Amontons was born on August 31, 1663. He died in 1705. He have deaf ear because he can a until to 3rd grade became deaf. He really learn, and loved about science. Father was lawer, said "No deaf can't do it science." Amonton continued study about air thermometers and barometers……He help to science of scientists, when he was lived in the of time when no there hearing aids. When he lived, he want deaf because he want attention. William was most deaf of the physicists in history!!! He was first idea about built of the therometer, barometers. He was famous at scientist ever!!!!!

In summary, there are many different strategies that are possible, such as rewriting a biography; taking a field trip to visit a deaf scientist; inviting a deaf scientist to interview in class; or interviewing over e-mail or fax. Following up on certain students who express interest in science careers may make a difference in the student's career orientation.

Workshop Activity #3: The workshop coordinator should divide the participants into small groups and ask them to take 20 - 30 minutes to develop a lesson plan. Each group should choose one science or math topic (e.g., recycling, energy, etc.) and design a lesson plan that includes one of the above activities for sharing information about successful deaf people in science, technology, engineering, or mathematics fields. How will the teachers determine if the activity may have influenced self efficacy? As a large group, discuss each activity.