Passive Voice

The term “voice,” as a linguistic category, indicates the relationship between the subject of a sentence and its verb. In English, there are two voices--active and passive.

If the subject of a sentence performs the action of the verb, the verb is said to be in the "active voice"; for example:

I stopped.

I bathed.

The active voice is considered the normal and preferred relationship in English sentences.

On the other hand, if the subject is acted upon by the verb, the verb is said to be in the "passive voice." There are two ways of casting a verb in the passive voice in English so as to cause the subject to be acted upon by its verb:

The foremost way is by using a form of the verb to be with the "past participle" of a verb, such as in the examples below:

The past participle is the name for the third principal part of a verb, for example, gone (go, went, GONE) or stopped (stop, stopped, STOPPED).

I was stopped. (= Someone stopped me.)

I was bathed. (= Someone bathed me.)

This is the more common way of the two. It appears in all levels of English, and its only restriction is that the verb must be transitive (able to take an object).

The second, and less common, way is by using a form of the verb to get with the past participle of a verb:

I got stopped. (= Someone stopped me.)

This second variant is often called the "get-passive." It is used in less formal situations, and its use is restricted to a small number of verbs, for example, get killed, get stuck, get hurt, get burned, get shot, get arrested, get paid.

Get-passive constructions will not be discussed in this module because there seems to be little definitive information about them except to say that their use is highly restricted; moreover, they do not seem to be as problematic for deaf students as be-passive constructions. For a thorough treatment of get-passive constructions see Yim (1998).

As previously stated, the passive voice in English is formed by combining a form of the verb to be with the past participle of a transitive verb. Its overall structure and its contrast with the active voice is probably easier to see if they are displayed in a paradigm of traditional English verb tenses.

Simple Tenses

Active Voice, Passive Voice

to stop, to be stopped

I stop, I am stopped
I stopped, I was stopped
I will stop, I will be stopped
I would stop, I would be stopped

to have stopped, to have been stopped

I have stopped, I have been stopped
I had stopped, I had been stopped
I will have stopped, I will have been stopped
I would have stopped, I would have been stopped

Theoretically, passive voice constructions can appear in any tense, but in actual practice with "progressive tense forms," they seem to be confined mostly to the present and past tenses. (Progressive tense forms involve the verb be plus a main verb in -ing.)

Progressive Tenses

Active Voice, Passive Voice

I am stopping, I am being stopped
I was stopping, I was being stopped

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Passive voice constructions can also be used with "modal auxiliary verbs" (can, might, etc.), such as in the following examples:

Active Voice, Passive Voice

I can stop, I can be stopped
I could stop, I could be stopped
I may stop, I may be stopped
I might stop, I might be stopped
I must stop, I must be stopped
I should stop, I should be stopped

Notice that the passive voice constructions always appear after the modal auxiliary verbs.

Summary of Definition of Passive Voice

1. A passive voice construction contains a form of the verb to be (or to get) plus a past participle of a transitive verb.
2. It expresses an action carried out on the subject of the sentence.

As stated previously, the more common voice construction in English is the active voice; however, there are generally three times when the passive voice is the structure of choice for speakers and writers (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1983; Robinson, 2000):

1. The passive voice allows speakers and writers to keep discourse topics in the subject position over successive clauses while adding new information in the remainder of the clause. Note these two examples.

a. I had just finished paying off my new car when it was towed by the police. Then, on the way to the towing compound, it was rammed by a truck and demolished.

b. The first electronic computer was built in Britain during World War II. It was used to decipher Hitler’s confidential messages to his generals. After the war, it was destroyed so that the world would not learn how the British broke codes.

2. The passive voice allows speakers and writers not to mention an "agent," especially when information about the agent is unknown, unimportant, obvious, confidential, or difficult to identify. (The word "agent" refers to the performer of an action.)

a. My car was stolen.
b. A decision has been made.
c. Much tobacco is grown in Eastern Europe.
d. A new president has been elected.
e. Both French and English are spoken in Canada.

3. The passive voice allows speakers and writers to place emphasis on the receiver of an action.

a. Thirteen people were injured by a tornado in Florida.
b. I was robbed.

Summary of Use of the Passive Voice

1. To keep discourse topics in the subject position of sentences.
2. To avoid mentioning the agent of an action.
3. To emphasize the receiver of an action.

As stated previously, the more common voice construction in English is the active voice; however, there are generally three times when the passive voice is the structure of choice for speakers and writers (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1983; Robinson, 2000):

1. The passive voice allows speakers and writers to keep discourse topics in the subject position over successive clauses while adding new information in the remainder of the clause. Note these two examples.

a. I had just finished paying off my new car when it was towed by the police. Then, on the way to the towing compound, it was rammed by a truck and demolished.

b. The first electronic computer was built in Britain during World War II. It was used to decipher Hitler’s confidential messages to his generals. After the war, it was destroyed so that the world would not learn how the British broke codes.

2. The passive voice allows speakers and writers not to mention an "agent," especially when information about the agent is unknown, unimportant, obvious, confidential, or difficult to identify. (The word "agent" refers to the performer of an action.)

a. My car was stolen.
b. A decision has been made.
c. Much tobacco is grown in Eastern Europe.
d. A new president has been elected.
e. Both French and English are spoken in Canada.

3. The passive voice allows speakers and writers to place emphasis on the receiver of an action.

a. Thirteen people were injured by a tornado in Florida.
b. I was robbed.

Summary of Use of the Passive Voice

1. To keep discourse topics in the subject position of sentences.
2. To avoid mentioning the agent of an action.
3. To emphasize the receiver of an action.

There exists an adjectival construction that resembles the passive voice superficially but is different in meaning; and it is important that teachers of deaf students recognize it. It is a construction using the verb to be with an adjective that is identical in form to a past participle. Note these examples:

1. The bank was closed all day yesterday. (= not open)
2. I was married for ten years. (= not single)
3. When I entered the room, I noticed that the chair was broken. (= not intact)

Although these constructions look identical to passive voice constructions, they do not express an action carried out on the subject of the sentence, they do not contain an explicit or implied agent, and they cannot be rewritten in the active voice. They merely describe the state or condition of the subject of the sentence.

Because they describe the state or condition of the subject of the sentence while resembling passive constructions superficially, some linguists call these constructions "stative passives" (Celse-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1983).

Most stative passives have true passive counterparts as well, as in the three examples below:

1. The bank was closed at exactly 3 o’clock. (= Somebody closed it.)

This sentence clearly describes an action and can include a by-phrase, as in “The bank was closed at exactly 3 o’clock by the manager.” Its active counterpart would be “The manager closed the bank at exactly 3 o’clock.”

2. I was married in that chapel. (= Someone performed my wedding ceremony.)

This sentence also describes an action and can accept a by-phrase. “I was married in that chapel by a justice of the peace." Its active counterpart would be “A justice of the peace married me in that chapel last year.” These are true passive voice constructions.

3. The chair was broken by the weight of the sumo wrestler when he sat down on it. (= He broke it.)

The active counterpart would be “The weight of the sumo wrestler broke the chair when he sat down on it.”

Stative Passive Constuctions Describing Emotional States

A salient type of stative passive is the combination of the verb to be with adjectives that describe an emotional state. There are about three dozen of them in common use. They are derived from verbs and are identical in form to past participles, most of them ending in -ed. But instead of indicating an action, they refer to the experiencing of an emotion. Note these examples:

I was bored. (= I felt bored.)
I was depressed. (= I felt depressed.)
I was exhausted. (= I felt exhausted.)
I was interested. (= I felt interested.)
I was tired. (= I felt tired.)
I was relieved. (= I felt relieved.)
I was satisfied. (= I felt satisfied.)
I was shocked. (= I felt shocked.)
I was disgusted. (= I felt disgusted.)

Instead of an agent by-phrase, these adjectives most often take a range of prepositions to connect them to the cause of the emotion.

I was exhausted from so much work.
I was interested in computers.
I was bored with my classes.
I was tired of hearing so many excuses.
I was relieved at the outcome of the election.
I was depressed over my divorce.
I was satisfied with my progress.
I was shocked at your behavior.

Occasionally, however, even some of these constructions may have a true passive interpretation.

I was shocked by your behavior.

In this case, the sentence could have an active counterpart of “Your behavior shocked me.”

Summary of Stative Passives versus True Passives

The important points to remember when you want to compare the true passive and the stative passive constructions are the following:

1. In true passive constructions

a. An action is carried out on the subject of the sentence.
b. There is an agent, either expressed or unexpressed.
c. There exists an active voice counterpart.

2. In stative passive constructions

a. The state or condition of the subject of the sentence is described.
b. There is no agent.
c. There is no active voice counterpart.

Not all true passive voice constructions have stative passive counterparts, but many, many do. As teachers involved in the instruction of deaf individuals, it is important that you perceive the distinction between these two identical-looking constructions. In that way, you can intervene more successfully if a student has difficulty interpreting them.

A small body of research exists that examines deaf children’s acquisition of passive constructions that use the verb to be with a past participle. Three salient studies are presented here. For the purpose of understanding deaf children’s acquisition of the passive voice, it is useful to divide passive constructions into three subtypes.

1. Reversible passive constructions
2. Nonreversible passive constructions
3. Agentless passive constructions

A "reversible passive" is a passive construction in which the subject can be exchanged with the agent in the by-phrase and still leave a correct logical sentence, albeit with the opposite meaning. Note the following example.

The detectives were tricked by the computer hacker.

If the subject and the agent in the by-phrase were reversed like this, “The computer hacker was tricked by the detectives,” the sentence would still make logical sense. Most reversible passive constructions contain animate nouns in both the subject position and in the by-phrase.

A "nonreversible passive" is a passive construction in which the subject cannot be exchanged with the agent in the by-phrase and still leave a correct logical sentence. For example,

The whole mainframe system was destroyed by a young hacker.

If this sentence were expressed as “A young hacker was destroyed by the whole mainframe system,” it would never make sense; hence, it is nonreversible.

An "agentless passive" is a passive construction that does not include the agent by-phrase, such as in the following two sentences:

The detectives were tricked.
The whole mainframe system was destroyed.

The agentless passive is, of course, the most common of the three subtypes.

Summary of Subtypes of Passive Voice Constructions

1. In reversible passive constructions, the subject can be exchanged with the agent in the by-phrase and still leave a correct logical sentence

2. In nonreversible passive constructions, the subject can not be exchanged with the agent in the by-phrase and still leave a correct logical sentence.

3. In agentless passive constructions, there is no expressed agent by-phrase.

In a study by Schmitt (1969) using 48 deaf participants from ages 8 to 17, it was found that many deaf adolescents as late as age 17 had problems comprehending reversible passive voice constructions. Schmitt concluded that they probably ignored the passive voice markers, that is, the verb to be and the by-phrase, and interpreted the sentences as active voice constructions. In other words, after reading a sentence like “The girl was pushed by the boy”, a deaf adolescent might often think that the girl pushed the boy--the absolute opposite interpretation to the one intended.

Power and Quigley (1973) studied 100 prelingually profoundly deaf children between ages 9 and 18. Their research supported the findings of Schmitt (1969). They believed that the deaf children were processing the subject-verb-by-phrase of a passive sentence as if it were subject-verb-object of an active voice sentence. And they named this kind of processing subject-verb-object (or SVO) reading strategy.

They further noticed a hierarchy of difficulty, as follows:

1. The most difficult were the agentless passive constructions, like "The child was washed,"where the by-phrase was missing and only the verb to be with the past participle appeared as an indicator of the passive voice.
2. Of only slightly less difficulty were reversible passive constructions like “The girl was pushed by the boy,” which participants often interpreted as “The girl pushed the boy.”
3. Of least difficulty were the nonreversible passive constructions such as “The car was washed by the man,” where an SVO reading strategy would have produced a nonsensical meaning.

Both the study by Schmitt and the study by Power and Quigley had presented their participants with passive voice constructions in isolated sentences. However, a third study by McGill-Franzen and Gormley (1980) presented 36 deaf elementary school children with passive voice constructions both in isolation and then embedded in context-rich connected prose. Their participants demonstrated significant improvement in the comprehension of the passive voice sentences that were embedded in connected prose.

In a production subtest of Power’s and Quigley’s (1973) study, the only passive marker that participants used consistently and correctly was the preposition by. Otherwise, participants made frequent errors in the verb phrase, writing sentences such as the following:

The boy pushed by the girl.
The boy push by the girl.
The boy was pushing by the girl.

and occasionally

The boy push the girl.

Even at 17 and 18 years of age, only 40% of the participants were able to produce correct passive voice sentences.

Summary Production Studies

1. The most difficult to least difficult types of passive voice constructions for young deaf students to comprehend were as follows:

agentless (most difficult)
reversible
nonreversible (least difficult)

2. The more difficult to less difficult type of environment for young deaf students to comprehend were as follows:

in isolated sentences (more difficult)
in connected prose (less difficult)

3. In their production of passive voice sentences, deaf students tended to include by-phrases but made errors while writing forms of the verb to be and the past participles.

1. The use of passive voice constructions in instructional materials should be kept to a minimum.

2. If it is necessary to use passive voice constructions in instructional materials, they should appear embedded in texts with illustrations and contextual clues that help clarify the passive voice constructions.

3. Teachers should be alert to the presence of passive voice constructions in deaf students' reading materials and to the fact that they might be problematic.

1. As a teacher, your most powerful action step is that of recognizing passive voice constructions and knowing that students may misunderstand them. In that way, you have the option of deciding whether to intervene and how to intervene.

2. When your purpose is to convey written information as clearly as possible to your deaf students; write instructions, quizzes, tests, and other necessary information in the active voice. In that way, you have a good chance of facilitating your students’ comprehension of the material. It is well worth the effort, but you must keep in mind the following caveat:

   Never eliminate passive voice constructions from another writer’s prose in order to make it easier for your students to read. The passive voice is a tool that writers use unconsciously to keep their readers’ focus on the topic of a passage and to maintain a smooth balance between old and new information. The changing of another writer’s prose without regard for the ordering of information, can significantly disrupt the flow of reading and can actually weaken readers’ ability to remember what they have read. Moreover, in the process of simplifying another writer’s passive voice sentences, other rhetorical devices can inadvertently get eliminated as well, degrading the text even more and in imperceptible ways. The result is a passage that is actually more difficult to read than the original.

3. Given the caveat above, if your students have to read extended texts with passive voice sentences, use some of the following instructive ways of intervening:

   a. Point out difficult passive voice constructions and discuss them with students to make sure that students understand them. Then ask students to paraphrase them.

   b. Question students about the information in the passive constructions to ascertain whether they have understood them correctly.

   c. Allow students to read the passages while you stand by to offer intervention when needed.

   d. Include clear illustrations that clarify the information in passive voice sentences.

4. If you use contact sign language (signed English) with your deaf students, be extra careful not to try to sign the components of an English passive voice verb. You may communicate just the opposite to what you had intended. Rather, recast the sentence into the active voice before signing it. This may take some practice.

1. In writing assignments, you can encourage students to keep the topic of an essay in the subject position as much as possible (Robinson, 2000). Then, if students make structural errors with the verbs, you can discuss with them which subjects should have passive verbs. This will provide students with authentic practice in both context and structure of passive voice sentences.

2. In course assignments, you can increase students’ exposure to passive voice structures by incorporating them into exercises in ways where they might naturally appear and where their meaning is absolutely clear.

An example would be a guided-sentence exercise in which students must first find correct information needed to complete passive voice sentences and then rewrite the completed sentences in their notebooks. Here is a social studies example.

Directions: Complete the following sentences by writing the name of the correct inventor in each of the spaces below. Then rewrite the complete sentences neatly in your notebook.

A. The first effective polio vaccine was developed by…

B. The first artificial heart was built by…

C. The telephone was invented by…

D. The windshield wiper was invented by…

If the students find the correct information, then the sentences in their notebooks should look like these:

A. The first effective polio vaccine was developed by Jonas Salk.

B. The first artificial heart was built by Robert Jarvik.

C. The telephone was invented by Alexander G. Bell.

D. The windshield wiper was invented by Mary Anderson.

With this kind of exercise, students have the opportunity to learn content while producing copious amounts of correct passive voice sentences with expressed agents in appropriate contexts.

3. For reinforcing the distinction between active and passive, you can develop inductive exercises related to specific assignments that force students to choose between active and passive sentences. For example, an exercise related to John Boorman’s The Emerald Forest by Robert Holdstock (1985) might contain contrasts like these:

Directions: Choose a statement from each pair that describes correctly the events that occurred in Part 2 of The Emerald Forest. Only one statement from each pair is correct.

A. Mr. Markham drove to work every day in a Jeep Rover.
B. Mr. Markham was driven to work every day in a Jeep Rover.

A. The police called after little Tommy had disappeared from the construction site.
B. The police were called after little Tommy had disappeared from the construction site.

A. At the Grey’s Landing Mission, Mr. Markham asked about an Indian tribe called the Invisible People.
B. At the Grey’s Landing Mission, Mr. Markham was asked about an Indian tribe called the Invisible People.

A. At the Grey’s Landing mission, the Indians taught Christian religion and Portuguese language.
B. At the Grey’s Landing mission, the Indians were taught Christian religion and Portuguese language.

A. During the night, the Fierce People attacked.
B. During the night, the Fierce People were attacked.

4. Ronald V. White (1978), in his article "Teaching the Passive," writes that the passive voice is often “treated as a transformation exercise, the student being required to rewrite active statements as passive ones. The result can be a confusion of forms, with a combination of elements which are neither active nor passive.” He further asserts that an important function of the passive voice construction, “as a means of describing a sequentially ordered process, may not be obvious to the student as a result of such practice exercises” (p. 188).

White suggests exposing students to descriptions of industrial and agricultural production processes from beginning to end. In such instances, writers naturally tend to use passive voice to keep the product in the subject position of a sentence while adding the new information in the remaining part of the sentence. For example:

Tuna are caught in large nets.
Then they are transported to a cannery.
Then they are offloaded onto conveyors.
And then they are cleaned.
After that, they are washed.
etc.

White suggests several accompanying activities such as multiple readings, answering questions, and the creation of flow-charts in order to help students to focus on form, content, and flow of information.